物理化學四個主要象限:
Molecular Quantum Mechanics / Quantum Chemistry and Spectroscopy、
Statistical Mechanics、
Chemical Thermodynamics,
以及 Chemical Kinetics and Dynamics,
那麼其中的 Chemical Thermodynamics(化學熱力學)
絕不只是熱力學第一、第二、第三定律而已。
真正完整的化學熱力學,應該從巨觀熱力學基本定律出發,
一路延伸到真實流體、溶液、相平衡、化學平衡、電化學,
最後更進入表面、界面、吸附、膠體、微胞、乳液與潤濕等真實物質系統。
若以三本書共同建立這個象限,可以形成相當漂亮的三級結構:
Fundamental Chemical Thermodynamics
↓
Fluid, Solution & Phase Thermodynamics
↓
Surface, Interface & Colloid Thermodynamics
三本書分別是:
-
Charles E. Reid, Chemical Thermodynamics:
化學熱力學的理論骨架。
-
J. M. Smith, H. C. Van Ness & M. M. Abbott,
Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics:
真實流體、溶液、相平衡與工程系統。
-
Drew Myers,
Surfaces, Interfaces, and Colloids: Principles and Applications:
表面、界面與膠體物理化學。

一、Charles E. Reid《Chemical Thermodynamics》:化學熱力學的理論主幹
Charles E. Reid 的 Chemical Thermodynamics
是一部定位非常純粹的化學熱力學教材。
她以古典熱力學為主要架構,
從基本定律、熱力學勢與平衡條件開始,
逐步進入氣體、熱化學、溶液、化學平衡、相平衡、
電化學與表面熱力學。
書中同時安排了一章 Statistical Thermodynamics,
藉由配分函數與統計觀點說明若干巨觀熱力學結果。
這點也很適合四象限的架構:
Chemical Thermodynamics 與 Statistical Mechanics 是不同象限,
卻並不是彼此隔絕。
主要目錄
Chapter 1 — Symbols, Units, and Mathematical Methods
符號、單位與數學方法
- Symbols and Units
- Thermodynamic Notation for Partial Derivatives
- Change of Variable in Differentiation
- Exact Differentials and Line Integrals
- Homogeneous Functions
Chapter 2 — Introduction and Basic Laws
導論與熱力學基本定律
- Basic Definitions
- The First Law of Thermodynamics
- The Enthalpy
- Thermal Equilibrium
- Reversible and Irreversible Changes
- Intensive and Extensive Properties
- The Second Law
- The Carnot Cycle
- Consequences of the Second Law
這一部分建立古典熱力學最基本的語言:
內能 U、焓 H、熱、功、熵以及可逆與不可逆過程。
Chapter 3 — Equilibrium and the Free Energy Functions
平衡與自由能函數
- Equilibrium at Constant Energy and Volume
- Equilibrium at Constant Temperature and Volume
- Equilibrium at Constant Temperature and Pressure
- Thermodynamic Potentials
- Stable, Metastable, Unstable, and Neutral Equilibria
從這一章開始,熱力學真正成為「決定變化方向與平衡」的理論。
不同限制條件下,系統分別以適當的熱力學勢作為平衡判準:
U、H、A、G
Chapter 4 — Gases
氣體
- Pressure–Volume Relations in Gases
- The Ideal Gas
- The Gas Constant
- Nonideal Gases
- Standard States
- Fugacities of Liquids and Solids
- Equations of State for Real Gases
- The Principle of Corresponding States
- The van der Waals Equation
- The Clapeyron Equation
Chapter 5 — Introduction to Thermochemistry
熱化學導論
- Thermodynamic Property Changes in a Reaction
- Calorimetry
- Determination of Enthalpy Change
- Kirchhoff Equation
- Enthalpies of Combustion
- Bond Enthalpies
- Electron Affinities and Crystal Energies
- Entropies of Reaction
- The Third Law
因此「化學反應的能量學」本身就是 Chemical Thermodynamics 的核心內容。
Chapter 6 — Statistical Thermodynamics
統計熱力學
- General Principles and Definitions
- The Boltzmann H-Theorem
- The Entropy Postulate
- The Distribution of Systems in Equilibrium
- Partition Function and Thermodynamic Properties
- The Einstein Crystal Model
- Factorization of the Partition Function
- The Ideal Monatomic Gas
- Diatomic and Polyatomic Gases
- The Debye Crystal Model
- Planck's Radiation Equation
- Statistical Thermodynamics and the Third Law
在四象限分類下,這一章最適合看作
Statistical Mechanics → Chemical Thermodynamics
之間的橋梁。
Chapter 7 — Mixtures and Solutions
混合物與溶液
- The Chemical Potential
- Partial Molar Quantities
- The Gibbs–Duhem Equation
- Ideal Mixtures
- Nonideal Mixtures
- Rational Activities
- Solvent and Solute Activities
- Osmotic Coefficients
- Molal Activity Scale
這裡出現化學熱力學最重要的變數之一:
chemical potential,μi
有了化學勢,熱力學才真正能夠系統處理多成分化學系統。
Chapter 8 — Chemical Equilibrium and Phase Equilibrium
化學平衡與相平衡
- Fundamental Equilibrium Expression for a Chemical Reaction
- The Equilibrium Constant
- Variation of Equilibrium Constant with Temperature
- Statistical Mechanics of Chemical Equilibrium
- Phase Equilibrium in Nonreacting Systems
- The Phase Rule
- The Phase Rule for Reacting Systems
- Partially Miscible Binary Liquid Systems
Chapter 9 — The Thermochemistry of Solutions
溶液熱化學
- Enthalpies of Solution
- Enthalpies of Formation of Ions
- Experimental Measurement
Chapter 10 — Electrolytic Solutions and Electrochemical Cells
電解質溶液與電化學電池
- Chemical Potentials, Activities, and Activity Coefficients
- Debye–Hückel Limiting Law
- Electrolyte Activities
- Galvanic Cells
- Electrode Potentials
- Electrochemical Potentials
所以在這個分類中,
Electrochemistry 可以自然視為 Chemical Thermodynamics 的重要分支。
Chapter 11 — Thermodynamics of Surfaces and Gravitational Fields
表面與重力場的熱力學
- General Consideration of Surfaces
- Equilibrium Conditions for the Surface
- Capillary Rise
- Thermal Effects of Increasing the Surface
- Gibbs Equation for Adsorption at a Surface
- Thermodynamics in a Gravitational Field
這一章尤其重要,因為她已經從普通 bulk thermodynamics
伸手進入 Surface Thermodynamics。
而這正是後面 Drew Myers 那本書要大幅展開的領域。
Chapter 12 — Systematic Methods of Deriving Thermodynamic Relations
熱力學關係的系統推導方法
- Jacobians
- Systems of Constant Composition
- Shaw's Formulation
- The Bridgman Tables
- Transformation Methods
二、Smith、Van Ness、Abbott:把化學熱力學推向真實流體與工程系統
如果 Reid 的書回答的是:
化學熱力學的理論結構是什麼?
那麼 Smith、Van Ness 與 Abbott 的
Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics
處理的問題便更接近:
真正的氣體、液體、混合物與化工程序,要怎麼算?
作者在序言中明確指出,本書從
chemical-engineering viewpoint
處理 thermodynamics,
但仍然強調建立在嚴謹熱力學原理之上。
核心內容
Chapter 1 — Introduction
- Scope of Thermodynamics
- Dimensions and Units
- Temperature
- Pressure
- Work
- Energy
- Heat
Chapter 2 — The First Law and Other Basic Concepts
- Internal Energy
- The First Law
- Energy Balances
- Thermodynamic State
- Equilibrium
- Phase Rule
- Reversible Process
- Enthalpy
- Heat Capacity
- Open-System Mass and Energy Balances
和一般化學系物化教材相比,
這裡很早便正式納入 open systems。
Chapter 3 — Volumetric Properties of Pure Fluids
純流體體積性質
- PVT Behavior
- Virial Equations
- Ideal Gas
- Cubic Equations of State
- Generalized Correlations
這一章開始把 Chemical Thermodynamics 推到真正的
real-fluid thermodynamics。
Chapter 4 — Heat Effects
熱效應
- Sensible Heat Effects
- Latent Heats
- Standard Heat of Reaction
- Standard Heat of Formation
- Standard Heat of Combustion
- Industrial Reaction Heat Effects
Chapter 5 — The Second Law of Thermodynamics
- Heat Engines
- Entropy
- Entropy Balance for Open Systems
- Ideal Work
- Lost Work
- The Third Law
- Microscopic View of Entropy
Chapter 6 — Thermodynamic Properties of Fluids
- Property Relations
- Residual Properties
- Equations of State
- Two-Phase Systems
- Thermodynamic Diagrams and Tables
Chapter 7 — Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
- Duct Flow
- Turbines
- Expanders
- Compression Processes
這裡雖然涉及流動,
但其核心仍然是能量、熵與狀態性質;
因此和真正以動量、熱量、質量傳遞為核心的
Transport Phenomena 仍可區分。
Chapter 8 — Production of Power from Heat
- Steam Power Plants
- Internal-Combustion Engines
- Jet and Related Power Cycles
Chapter 9 — Refrigeration and Liquefaction
- Refrigeration Cycles
- Vapor Compression
- Heat Pumps
- Liquefaction Processes
Chapter 10 — Vapor/Liquid Equilibrium: Introduction
汽液平衡
- Nature of Equilibrium
- Phase Rule
- Duhem's Theorem
- Simple VLE Models
- Modified Raoult's Law
- K-Value Correlations
Chapter 11 — Solution Thermodynamics: Theory
- Fundamental Property Relation
- Chemical Potential
- Partial Properties
- Fugacity
- Fugacity Coefficients
- Ideal Solutions
- Excess Properties
在這裡,現代相平衡最重要的一套語言正式出現:
μi + fi + γi + φi
Chapter 12 — Solution Thermodynamics: Applications
- Liquid-Phase Properties from VLE Data
- Excess Gibbs-Energy Models
- Properties of Mixing
- Heat Effects of Mixing
Chapter 13 — Chemical-Reaction Equilibria
- Reaction Coordinate
- Equilibrium Criteria
- Standard Gibbs-Energy Change
- Equilibrium Constant
- Temperature Dependence
- Equilibrium Conversion
- Multireaction Equilibria
- Fuel Cells
ΔrG = ΔrG° + RT ln Q
而平衡時:
ΔrG = 0
Chapter 14 — Topics in Phase Equilibria
- γ/φ Formulation of VLE
- VLE from Cubic Equations of State
- Phase Stability
- Liquid/Liquid Equilibrium
- Vapor/Liquid/Liquid Equilibrium
- Solid/Liquid Equilibrium
- Solid/Vapor Equilibrium
- Gas Adsorption on Solids
- Osmotic Equilibrium
Chapter 15 — Thermodynamic Analysis of Processes
將第一、第二定律以及 irreversibility
正式用來分析真實化工程序。
Chapter 16 — Introduction to Molecular Thermodynamics
- Molecular Theory of Fluids
- Intermolecular Potential Functions
- Virial Coefficients
- Statistical Mechanics
- Hydrogen Bonding
- Molecular Basis of Mixture Behavior
- Molecular Simulation of VLE
這一章又重新接回 Statistical Mechanics:
Intermolecular Potential
↓
Statistical Mechanics
↓
Equation of State
↓
Phase Equilibrium
三、Drew Myers《Surfaces, Interfaces, and Colloids》:從體相走向真正的界面世界
加入 Drew Myers 的
Surfaces, Interfaces, and Colloids: Principles and Applications
之後,Chemical Thermodynamics 這一象限便不再停留於
bulk fluid、solution 與 phase equilibrium,
而正式進入:
Surface → Interface → Colloid → Self-Assembly
Myers 把表面與膠體稱為介於分子尺度與巨觀體相之間的
「被忽略的尺度」,
甚至以 Twilight Zone 形容這個領域。
更重要的是,這本書不是單純列舉各種膠體現象;
她把整個領域建立在
surface free energy、intermolecular forces、electrostatics、
adsorption、thermodynamics 與 kinetics
之上。
Chapter 1 — Surfaces and Colloids: The Twilight Zone
表面與膠體:介於分子與體相之間的世界
膠體與界面位於兩個極端之間:
Molecule / Atom
↔
Interface / Colloid
↔
Bulk Matter
這也是非常典型的 mesoscopic science:
某些性質只有在大量分子、粒子與界面共同作用時才會出現。
Chapter 2 — Surfaces and Interfaces: General Concepts
- The Nature of Interfaces
- Surface Free Energy
- Work of Cohesion
- Work of Adhesion
- Standard Reference States
- Molecular Nature of the Interfacial Region
這裡是整本書最核心的熱力學起點。
形成新的界面需要增加系統自由能,可以概念性寫成:
dG = γ dA
其中 γ 表示單位界面面積所對應的自由能代價。
因此,自然系統通常傾向降低總界面面積。
對平衡純液體而言,
surface tension 與 specific excess surface free energy
具有密切而直接的關係;
但對固體而言,由於晶體方向性、表面缺陷與非平衡性,
surface energy 與 surface stress 的關係更加複雜。
Chapter 3 — Surface Activity and Surfactant Structures
- Surface Activity
- Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Groups
- Anionic Surfactants
- Cationic Surfactants
- Nonionic Surfactants
- Amphoteric and Zwitterionic Surfactants
界面活性劑的 amphiphilic 結構,
使分子可以透過吸附於界面或形成聚集體降低系統自由能。
Surfactant in Solution
→ Adsorption / Aggregation
→ Lower Free Energy
Chapter 4 — Attractive Forces
- Coulombic Interactions
- Ion–Dipole Interactions
- Dipole–Dipole Interactions
- Dipole-Induced Dipole Interactions
- London Dispersion Forces
- Total van der Waals Interactions
- Hamaker Theory
- Lifshitz Theory
這一章很漂亮地把 Chemical Thermodynamics
接回 Quantum Chemistry。
其中 London dispersion force 本質上來自量子力學,
而在介面與膠體系統中,
大量分子之間的相互作用又會形成巨觀可測量的表面與膠體性質:
Quantum Mechanics
↓
Intermolecular Forces
↓
Surface Free Energy
↓
Interfacial / Colloidal Properties
Chapter 5 — Electrostatic Forces and the Electrical Double Layer
- Sources of Interfacial Charge
- Coulomb's Law
- Boltzmann Distribution
- Electrical Double Layer
- Debye Length
- Stern Layer
- Electrophoresis
- Electrokinetic Phenomena
這一部分其實是三種理論的交叉:
Electromagnetism
+
Statistical Mechanics
+
Chemical Thermodynamics
然後產生電雙層、Debye screening、
electrophoresis 等典型界面現象。
Chapter 6 — Capillarity
- Capillary Forces
- Contact Angle
- Capillary Flow
- Spreading
- Wetting
這裡可以看到表面自由能如何直接轉化成肉眼可見的巨觀現象。
Chapter 7 — Solid Surfaces
- Surface Mobility in Solids
- Sintering
- Solid Surface Free Energy
- Crystalline Surfaces
- Nucleation
- Amorphous Solid Surfaces
因此 Surface Thermodynamics
又自然與 solid-state chemistry、materials science
以及 condensed matter 相連。
Chapter 8 — Liquid–Fluid Interfaces
- Surface Tension
- Temperature Effects
- Surface Curvature
- Dynamic Surface Tension
- Surfactant Adsorption
- Gibbs Monolayers
- Surface Pressure
- Surface Potential
- Surface Rheology
這一章幾乎就是完整的
Interfacial Thermodynamics。
Chapter 9 — Adsorption
- Gibbs Surface Excess
- Gibbs Adsorption Equation
- Physical Adsorption
- Chemisorption
- Heterogeneous Catalysis
- Langmuir Isotherm
- Freundlich Isotherm
- BET Isotherm
- Solid–Liquid Adsorption
Reid 書中較精簡的 Gibbs surface thermodynamics,
到了 Myers 這裡被真正展開成完整的 adsorption science。
Chapter 10 — Colloids and Colloidal Stability
- Colloid Formation
- Interparticle Forces
- Electrical Double Layer
- Steric Stabilization
- Coagulation Kinetics
- DLVO Theory
- Reversible Flocculation
「膠體穩定性」是一種非常典型的集體性質。
單獨一顆粒子並不存在 colloidal stability 的問題;
當大量粒子與溶劑、離子以及界面共同存在時,
才會湧現出聚集、排斥、穩定與絮凝等行為。
Chapter 11 — Emulsions
- Emulsion Formation
- Liquid–Liquid Interfaces
- Emulsifiers and Stabilizers
- Surfactants
- Hydrophile–Lipophile Balance
- Phase Inversion Temperature
- Multiple Emulsions
Chapter 12 — Foams
- Foam Formation
- Thermodynamic Conditions for Stability
- Stabilization Mechanisms
- Surface Rheology
- Surfactant Effects
Chapter 13 — Aerosols
- Aerosol Dynamics
- Mists and Fogs
- Droplet Formation
- Atomization
- Dust and Smoke
此處已開始與 Fluid Mechanics
以及 Transport Phenomena 產生明顯交界。
Chapter 14 — Polymers at Interfaces
- Polymer Solubility
- Statistics of Polymer Chain Conformations
- Polymer Adsorption
- Polymer–Surfactant Interactions
- Emulsion Polymerization
這又形成:
Statistical Mechanics
+
Polymer Physics
+
Surface Chemistry
Chapter 15 — Association Colloids: Micelles, Vesicles, and Membranes
- Krafft Temperature
- Surfactant Liquid Crystals
- Micelles
- Thermodynamics of Micelle Formation
- Free Energy of Micellization
- Critical Micelle Concentration
- Vesicles
- Bilayer Membranes
- Biological Membranes
這其實就是典型的
self-assembly thermodynamics:
Monomers ⇌ Micelle / Vesicle / Bilayer
分子不是靠共價鍵連成一個新分子,
而是透過自由能、熵與分子間作用力,
自行組織成新的巨觀或介觀結構。
Chapter 16 — Solubilization, Micellar Catalysis, and Microemulsions
- Solubilization
- Micellar Catalysis
- Microemulsions
- Interfacial Tension
Chapter 17 — Wetting and Spreading
- Contact Angle
- Contact Angle Hysteresis
- Surface Roughness
- Thermodynamics of Wetting
- Young's Equation
- Spreading Coefficient
- Solid Surface Energy
- Dynamic Wetting
Young equation 可以寫成:
γSV
=
γSL
+
γLV cos θ
這幾乎可以算是界面熱力學最具代表性的方程之一。
Chapter 18 — Friction, Lubrication, and Wear
- Friction
- Surface Structure
- Lubrication
- Adsorption
- Wear
這裡則開始與 tribology、
materials science 與 fluid mechanics 相交。
Chapter 19 — Adhesion
- Thermodynamic Adhesion
- Practical Adhesion
- Adhesive Failure
整本書最後又回到 Chapter 2 的基本問題:
不同物質形成或分離一個界面,需要多少自由能?
四、三本書共同構成的 Chemical Thermodynamics
| 層次 |
代表教材 |
核心內容 |
|
Fundamental Chemical Thermodynamics
|
Charles E. Reid
|
U、H、S、A、G、chemical potential、equilibrium、thermochemistry、
electrochemistry
|
|
Fluid, Solution & Phase Thermodynamics
|
Smith、Van Ness、Abbott
|
Real fluids、EOS、fugacity、activity、
VLE、LLE、chemical equilibrium、process thermodynamics
|
|
Surface, Interface & Colloid Thermodynamics
|
Drew Myers
|
Surface free energy、adsorption、double layer、wetting、
colloids、micelles、emulsions、foams、membranes、adhesion
|
五、從 Bulk 到 Interface:這才是完整的化學熱力學
如果只按照一般基礎物理化學教材的篇幅,
Chemical Thermodynamics 很容易被看成:
第一定律
+
第二定律
+
自由能
+
平衡
但三本專書合起來以後,
真正的版圖其實是:
Thermodynamic Laws
↓
Thermodynamic Potentials
↓
Chemical Potential
↓
Real Fluids & Equations of State
↓
Mixtures & Solutions
↓
Chemical & Phase Equilibria
↓
Electrochemistry
↓
Surface Free Energy
↓
Adsorption & Wetting
↓
Colloids & Self-Assembly
六、Chemical Thermodynamics 與其他三象限並不是互不往來
這三本書同時還證明了一件很重要的事:
四大象限不是四個互相隔離的抽屜。
與 Statistical Mechanics 的交界
Reid 有 Statistical Thermodynamics;
Smith–Van Ness–Abbott 最後進入 Molecular Thermodynamics;
Myers 在微胞、高分子與膠體中大量涉及
Boltzmann distribution、entropy 與 molecular organization。
Statistical Mechanics
→
Macroscopic Thermodynamic Properties
與 Quantum Chemistry 的交界
Myers 討論的 London dispersion force
本質上具有量子力學來源,
而分子間作用力又進一步控制吸附、
凝聚、膠體穩定與自組裝。
Quantum Chemistry
→
Intermolecular Forces
→
Interfacial Properties
與 Chemical Kinetics and Dynamics 的交界
膠體絮凝、潤濕、吸附、乳液破壞、
表面反應與異相催化都不只需要知道
「最後哪個狀態最穩定」,
還必須知道:
系統多久才會走到那裡?
也就是:
Thermodynamics tells us where.
Kinetics tells us how fast.
結論:Chemical Thermodynamics 是物質巨觀行為的理論
因此,在這套物理化學四大象限裡,
Chemical Thermodynamics 最適合被理解為:
研究大量粒子所形成之巨觀與介觀化學系統,
其能量、熵、組成、相態、平衡以及界面行為的理論。
她從最基本的:
U、H、S、A、G、μ
一路走到:
氣體、液體、溶液、混合物、相平衡、反應平衡、
電化學、表面、界面、吸附、膠體、乳液、微胞與膜
於是這個象限可以完整寫成:
Chemical Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic Laws
+ Thermochemistry
+ Fluid Thermodynamics
+ Solution Thermodynamics
+ Chemical Potential
+ Phase Equilibria
+ Chemical Equilibria
+ Electrochemistry
+ Surface & Interfacial Thermodynamics
+ Colloid Thermodynamics
+ Self-Assembly Thermodynamics
+ Process Thermodynamics
如此一來,
Chemical Thermodynamics 就不再只是「熱與功的學問」,
而是從 bulk matter 一直延伸到 interface,
用自由能與統計觀念回答:
大量物質為什麼呈現現在這個狀態,又為什麼會朝另一個狀態改變。
而她與 Molecular Quantum Mechanics、
Statistical Mechanics、
Chemical Kinetics and Dynamics 一起,
才真正構成一套完整的物理化學理論架構。
